After reading Rust book chapter 15

rust


1. Box를 이용한 힙 메모리의 데이터 참조


1-1. 힙 메모리에 박스 데이터 저장하기

fn main() {
    let b = Box::new(5);
    println!("b = {}", b);
}


1-2. 박스와 재귀 타입 활용하기


(1) 리스트 생성자 (cons list, construction list)


enum List {
    Cons(i32, List),
    Nil,
}

use crate::List::{Cons, Nil};

fn main() {
    let list = Cons(1, Cons(2, Cons(3, Nil)));
}


(2) 비재귀 타입의 크기를 계산하는 방법

enum Message {
    Quit,
    Move { x: i32, y: i32 },
    Write(String),
    ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32),
}


(3) Box로 재귀 타입의 크기 결정하기

// (1)
help: insert some indirection (e.g., a `Box`, `Rc`, or `&`) to make `List` representable
  |
2 |     Cons(i32, Box<List>),
  |

// (2)
enum List {
    Cons(i32, Box<List>),
    Nil,
}

use crate::List::{Cons, Nil};

fn main() {
    let list = Cons(1, Box::new(Cons(2, Box::new(Cons(3, Box::new(Nil))))));
}


2. Deref 트레이트로 스마트 포인터를 참조처럼 취급하기


2-1. 역참조 연산자로 포인터가 가리키는 값 읽어오기

fn main() {
    let x = 5;
    let y = &x;

    assert_eq!(5, x);
    assert_eq!(5, *y);
}


2-2. Box를 참조처럼 사용하기

fn main() {
    let x = 5;
    let y = Box::new(x);

    assert_eq!(5, x);
    assert_eq!(5, *y);
}


2-3. 직접 구현하는 스마트 포인터

struct MyBox<T>(T);

impl<T> MyBox<T> {
    fn new(x: T) -> MyBox<T> {
        MyBox(x)
    }
}

fn main() {}



struct MyBox<T>(T);

impl<T> MyBox<T> {
    fn new(x: T) -> MyBox<T> {
        MyBox(x)
    }
}

fn main() {
    let x = 5;
    let y = MyBox::new(x);

    assert_eq!(5, x);
    assert_eq!(5, *y);
}

// 실행결과
$ cargo run
   Compiling deref-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/deref-example)
error[E0614]: type `MyBox<{integer}>` cannot be dereferenced
  --> src/main.rs:14:19
   |
14 |     assert_eq!(5, *y);
   |                   ^^

For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0614`.
error: could not compile `deref-example` due to previous error


2-4. Deref 트레이트로 참조같은 타입 구현하기

use std::ops::Deref;

impl<T> Deref for MyBox<T> {
    type Target = T;

    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
        &self.0
    }
}

struct MyBox<T>(T);

impl<T> MyBox<T> {
    fn new(x: T) -> MyBox<T> {
        MyBox(x)
    }
}

fn main() {
    let x = 5;
    let y = MyBox::new(x);

    assert_eq!(5, x);
    assert_eq!(5, *y);
}


2-5. 함수와 메서드에서 묵시적 강제 역참조

use std::ops::Deref;

impl<T> Deref for MyBox<T> {
    type Target = T;

    fn deref(&self) -> &T {
        &self.0
    }
}

struct MyBox<T>(T);

impl<T> MyBox<T> {
    fn new(x: T) -> MyBox<T> {
        MyBox(x)
    }
}

fn hello(name: &str) {
    println!("Hello, {}!", name);
}

fn main() {
    let m = MyBox::new(String::from("Rust"));
    hello(&m);
}


[강제 역참조가 없었다면?]

fn main() {
    let m = MyBox::new(String::from("Rust"));
    hello(&(*m)[..]);
}


2-6. 강제 역참조와 가변성


[다시 살펴보는 참조 규칙]


3. Drop 트레이트로 클린업 코드 실행하기


struct CustomSmartPointer {
    data: String,
}

impl Drop for CustomSmartPointer {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        println!("Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `{}`!", self.data);
    }
}

fn main() {
    let c = CustomSmartPointer {
        data: String::from("my stuff"),
    };
    let d = CustomSmartPointer {
        data: String::from("other stuff"),
    };
    println!("CustomSmartPointers created.");
}

// 실행결과
$ cargo run
   Compiling drop-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/drop-example)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s
     Running `target/debug/drop-example`
CustomSmartPointers created.
Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `other stuff`!
Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `my stuff`!


3-1. std::mem::drop 으로 조기 해제하기

struct CustomSmartPointer {
    data: String,
}

impl Drop for CustomSmartPointer {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        println!("Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `{}`!", self.data);
    }
}

fn main() {
    let c = CustomSmartPointer {
        data: String::from("some data"),
    };
    println!("CustomSmartPointer created.");
    c.drop();
    println!("CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main.");
}

// 실행결과
$ cargo run
   Compiling drop-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/drop-example)
error[E0040]: explicit use of destructor method
  --> src/main.rs:16:7
   |
16 |     c.drop();
   |     --^^^^--
   |     | |
   |     | explicit destructor calls not allowed
   |     help: consider using `drop` function: `drop(c)`

For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0040`.
error: could not compile `drop-example` due to previous error



struct CustomSmartPointer {
    data: String,
}

impl Drop for CustomSmartPointer {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        println!("Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `{}`!", self.data);
    }
}

fn main() {
    let c = CustomSmartPointer {
        data: String::from("some data"),
    };
    println!("CustomSmartPointer created.");
    drop(c);
    println!("CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main.");
}

// 실행결과
$ cargo run
   Compiling drop-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/drop-example)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.73s
     Running `target/debug/drop-example`
CustomSmartPointer created.
Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `some data`!
CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main.


4. Rc, 참조 카운터 스마트 포인터


4-1. Rc 타입을 이용해 데이터 공유하기

enum List {
    Cons(i32, Box<List>),
    Nil,
}

use crate::List::{Cons, Nil};

fn main() {
    let a = Cons(5, Box::new(Cons(10, Box::new(Nil))));
    let b = Cons(3, Box::new(a));
    let c = Cons(4, Box::new(a));
}

$ cargo run
   Compiling cons-list v0.1.0 (file:///projects/cons-list)
error[E0382]: use of moved value: `a`
  --> src/main.rs:11:30
   |
9  |     let a = Cons(5, Box::new(Cons(10, Box::new(Nil))));
   |         - move occurs because `a` has type `List`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait
10 |     let b = Cons(3, Box::new(a));
   |                              - value moved here
11 |     let c = Cons(4, Box::new(a));
   |                              ^ value used here after move

For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`.
error: could not compile `cons-list` due to previous error



enum List {
    Cons(i32, Rc<List>),
    Nil,
}

use crate::List::{Cons, Nil};
use std::rc::Rc;

fn main() {
    let a = Rc::new(Cons(5, Rc::new(Cons(10, Rc::new(Nil)))));
    let b = Cons(3, Rc::clone(&a));
    let c = Cons(4, Rc::clone(&a));
}


4-2. Rc의 복제는 참조 카운트를 증가시킨다.

fn main() {
    let a = Rc::new(Cons(5, Rc::new(Cons(10, Rc::new(Nil)))));
    println!("count after creating a = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a));
    let b = Cons(3, Rc::clone(&a));
    println!("count after creating b = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a));
    {
        let c = Cons(4, Rc::clone(&a));
        println!("count after creating c = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a));
    }
    println!("count after c goes out of scope = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a));
}


5. RefCell 타입과 내부 가변성 패턴


5-1. RefCell 타입으로 런타임에 대여 규칙 강제하기


5-2. 내부 가변성: 불변 값에 대한 가변 대여

fn main() {
    let x = 5;
    let y = &mut x;
}

$ cargo run
   Compiling borrowing v0.1.0 (file:///projects/borrowing)
error[E0596]: cannot borrow `x` as mutable, as it is not declared as mutable
 --> src/main.rs:3:13
  |
2 |     let x = 5;
  |         - help: consider changing this to be mutable: `mut x`
3 |     let y = &mut x;
  |             ^^^^^^ cannot borrow as mutable

For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0596`.
error: could not compile `borrowing` due to previous error


(1) 내부 가변성의 활용 예: Mock Objects


// 현재 값이 최대값에 얼마나 가까워지는지 추적하여
// 일정 수준이 되면 경고를 보내는 라이브러리
pub trait Messenger {
    fn send(&self, msg: &str);
}

pub struct LimitTracker<'a, T: Messenger> {
    messenger: &'a T,
    value: usize,
    max: usize,
}

impl<'a, T> LimitTracker<'a, T>
where
    T: Messenger,
{
    pub fn new(messenger: &'a T, max: usize) -> LimitTracker<'a, T> {
        LimitTracker {
            messenger,
            value: 0,
            max,
        }
    }

    pub fn set_value(&mut self, value: usize) {
        self.value = value;

        let percentage_of_max = self.value as f64 / self.max as f64;

        if percentage_of_max >= 1.0 {
            self.messenger.send("Error: You are over your quota!");
        } else if percentage_of_max >= 0.9 {
            self.messenger
                .send("Urgent warning: You've used up over 90% of your quota!");
        } else if percentage_of_max >= 0.75 {
            self.messenger
                .send("Warning: You've used up over 75% of your quota!");
        }
    }
}



#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    struct MockMessenger {
        sent_messages: Vec<String>,
    }

    impl MockMessenger {
        fn new() -> MockMessenger {
            MockMessenger {
                sent_messages: vec![],
            }
        }
    }

    impl Messenger for MockMessenger {
        fn send(&self, message: &str) {
            self.sent_messages.push(String::from(message));
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message() {
        let mock_messenger = MockMessenger::new();
        let mut limit_tracker = LimitTracker::new(&mock_messenger, 100);

        limit_tracker.set_value(80);

        assert_eq!(mock_messenger.sent_messages.len(), 1);
    }
}



$ cargo test
   Compiling limit-tracker v0.1.0 (file:///projects/limit-tracker)
error[E0596]: cannot borrow `self.sent_messages` as mutable, as it is behind a `&` reference
  --> src/lib.rs:58:13
   |
2  |     fn send(&self, msg: &str);
   |             ----- help: consider changing that to be a mutable reference: `&mut self`
...
58 |             self.sent_messages.push(String::from(message));
   |             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `self` is a `&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable

For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0596`.
error: could not compile `limit-tracker` due to previous error
warning: build failed, waiting for other jobs to finish...
error: build failed



#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;
    use std::cell::RefCell;

    struct MockMessenger {
        sent_messages: RefCell<Vec<String>>,
    }

    impl MockMessenger {
        fn new() -> MockMessenger {
            MockMessenger {
                sent_messages: RefCell::new(vec![]),
            }
        }
    }

    impl Messenger for MockMessenger {
        fn send(&self, message: &str) {
            self.sent_messages.borrow_mut().push(String::from(message));
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message() {
        // --snip--

        assert_eq!(mock_messenger.sent_messages.borrow().len(), 1);
    }
}


(2) RefCell 이용해 런타임에 대여 검사하기

// 같은 스코프에서 두 가변 참조를 생성함

impl Messenger for MockMessenger {
    fn send(&self, message: &str) {
        let mut one_borrow = self.sent_messages.borrow_mut();
        let mut two_borrow = self.sent_messages.borrow_mut();

        one_borrow.push(String::from(message));
        two_borrow.push(String::from(message));
    }
}

failures:
---- tests::it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message stdout ----
thread 'main' panicked at 'already borrowed: BorrowMutError', src/lib.rs:60:53
note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace



5-3. Rc와 RefCell 조합해 가변 데이터에 다중 소유권 적용하기

#[derive(Debug)]
enum List {
    Cons(Rc<RefCell<i32>>, Rc<List>),
    Nil,
}

use crate::List::{Cons, Nil};
use std::cell::RefCell;
use std::rc::Rc;

fn main() {
    let value = Rc::new(RefCell::new(5));

    let a = Rc::new(Cons(Rc::clone(&value), Rc::new(Nil)));

    let b = Cons(Rc::new(RefCell::new(3)), Rc::clone(&a));
    let c = Cons(Rc::new(RefCell::new(4)), Rc::clone(&a));

    *value.borrow_mut() += 10;

    println!("a after = {:?}", a);
    println!("b after = {:?}", b);
    println!("c after = {:?}", c);
}


6. 순환참조는 메모리 누수를 일으킨다.


6-1. 순환참조 생성하기

use crate::List::{Cons, Nil};
use std::cell::RefCell;
use std::rc::Rc;

#[derive(Debug)]
enum List {
    Cons(i32, RefCell<Rc<List>>),
    Nil,
}

impl List {
    fn tail(&self) -> Option<&RefCell<Rc<List>>> {
        match self {
            Cons(_, item) => Some(item),
            Nil => None,
        }
    }
}

fn main() {
    let a = Rc::new(Cons(5, RefCell::new(Rc::new(Nil))));

    println!("a initial rc count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a));
    println!("a next item = {:?}", a.tail());

    let b = Rc::new(Cons(10, RefCell::new(Rc::clone(&a))));

    println!("a rc count after b creation = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a));
    println!("b initial rc count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&b));
    println!("b next item = {:?}", b.tail());

    if let Some(link) = a.tail() {
        *link.borrow_mut() = Rc::clone(&b);
    }

    println!("b rc count after changing a = {}", Rc::strong_count(&b));
    println!("a rc count after changing a = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a));

    // 순환참조가 생성된 것을 확인하려면 아래 코드 주석을 해제한다.
    // 하지만 그러면 스택 오버플로가 발생한다.
    // println!("a next item = {:?}", a.tail());
}



$ cargo run
   Compiling cons-list v0.1.0 (file:///projects/cons-list)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.53s
     Running `target/debug/cons-list`
a initial rc count = 1
a next item = Some(RefCell { value: Nil })
a rc count after b creation = 2
b initial rc count = 1
b next item = Some(RefCell { value: Cons(5, RefCell { value: Nil }) })
b rc count after changing a = 2
a rc count after changing a = 2


6-2. 순환참조 방지: Rc 대신 Weak 활용하기


(1) 트리 데이터 구조: 자식 노드를 갖는 노드

use std::cell::RefCell;
use std::rc::Rc;

// Node는
// 1. 자식 노드에 대한 소유권을 가져야 함
// 2. 저장할 변수가 트리의 각 노드에 접근하게 소유권을 변수와 공유해야 함
// 3. 각 노드는 다른 노드의 자식 노드를 변경할 수 있어야 함
// => RefCell<Vec<Rc<Node>>>
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Node {
    value: i32,
    children: RefCell<Vec<Rc<Node>>>,
}

fn main() {
    let leaf = Rc::new(Node {
        value: 3,
        children: RefCell::new(vec![]),
    });

    let branch = Rc::new(Node {
        value: 5,
        children: RefCell::new(vec![Rc::clone(&leaf)]),
    });
}


(2) 부모 노드의 참조를 자식 노드에 추가하기

use std::cell::RefCell;
use std::rc::{Rc, Weak};

// parent 필드가 Rc<T> 타입이라면:
// 1.leaf.parent는 branch를 가리킴
// 2. branch.children은 leaf를 가리킴
// => 순환참조 발생
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Node {
    value: i32,
    parent: RefCell<Weak<Node>>,
    children: RefCell<Vec<Rc<Node>>>,
}

fn main() {
    let leaf = Rc::new(Node {
        value: 3,
        parent: RefCell::new(Weak::new()),
        children: RefCell::new(vec![]),
    });

    println!("leaf parent = {:?}", leaf.parent.borrow().upgrade());

    let branch = Rc::new(Node {
        value: 5,
        parent: RefCell::new(Weak::new()),
        children: RefCell::new(vec![Rc::clone(&leaf)]),
    });

    *leaf.parent.borrow_mut() = Rc::downgrade(&branch);

    println!("leaf parent = {:?}", leaf.parent.borrow().upgrade());
}


(3) strong_count와 weak_count 값 확인하기

fn main() {
    let leaf = Rc::new(Node {
        value: 3,
        parent: RefCell::new(Weak::new()),
        children: RefCell::new(vec![]),
    });

    // leaf strong = 1, weak = 0
    println!(
        "leaf strong = {}, weak = {}",
        Rc::strong_count(&leaf),
        Rc::weak_count(&leaf),
    );

    {
        let branch = Rc::new(Node {
            value: 5,
            parent: RefCell::new(Weak::new()),
            children: RefCell::new(vec![Rc::clone(&leaf)]),
        });

        *leaf.parent.borrow_mut() = Rc::downgrade(&branch);

        // branch strong = 1, weak = 1
        // leaf.parent 필드가 Weak<Node> 타입을 이용해
        // branch 인스턴스를 가리키고 있기 때문임
        println!(
            "branch strong = {}, weak = {}",
            Rc::strong_count(&branch),
            Rc::weak_count(&branch),
        );

        // leaf strong = 2, weak = 0
        // branch가 leaf 인스턴스에 저장된 Rc<Node> 복제본을
        // branch.children 필드에 저장하고 있어서임
        println!(
            "leaf strong = {}, weak = {}",
            Rc::strong_count(&leaf),
            Rc::weak_count(&leaf),
        );
    }

    // leaf parent = None
    // branch 인스턴스의 스코프가 끝나므로 Node가 해제되기 때문임
    println!("leaf parent = {:?}", leaf.parent.borrow().upgrade());

    // leaf strong = 1, weak = 0
    println!(
        "leaf strong = {}, weak = {}",
        Rc::strong_count(&leaf),
        Rc::weak_count(&leaf),
    );
}